Adaptación y validación psicométrica del Cuestionario de Consecuencias Funcionales del Dormir (Functional Outcomes Sleep Questionnaire [FOSQ]) en habitantes de la Ciudad de México / Adaptation and psychometric validation of the functional outcomes sleep questionnaire (FOSQ) in México City habitants

Excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS) is a highly disabling sleep disorder related to alterations in behavioral performance, work injuries and vehicle accidents. A high prevalence of EDS (from 16% to 32%) in the general population has been reported. The Functional Outcomes Sleep Questionnaire (FOSQ) is an instrument that measures the impact of EDS in a patient's functional state in different sleep disorders. This questionnaire has been validated in different countries (Norway, Turkey, Spain). Therefore, the objective of this study was to obtain the cultural validation, the internal consistency, construct validity and factor congruence of the adapted questionnaire for the inhabitants of Mexico City (FOSQ-México). In the first part of the study we translated the questionnaire using the standard methodological process. The FOSQ cultural adaptation was made by the Natural Modified Semantic Networks technique in a sample of 78 participants. In the second part, the adapted FOSQ was applied to 152 participants to test items discrimination, internal consistency, factor analysis by principal-components and factorial congruence with the original version. The principal-components analysis of the FOSQ yielded six meaningful factors that explained 67.2% of the total variance, an average a coefficient between 0.85 to 0.94 for the six factors. The factorial congruence coefficients ranged from 0.360 to 0.969 between the original and the FOSQ-México version. This study demonstrated that the FOSQ version for inhabitants of Mexico City is reliable, valid and conceptually equivalent to the American version.

La Somnolencia Diurna Excesiva (SDE) es uno de los problemas de sueño más incapacitantes ya que se relaciona con déficits en la ejecución conductual, accidentes laborales y vehiculares. Se estima una prevalencia en la población general de entre 16% y 32%. El Functional Outcomes Sleep Questionnaire (FOSQ) es el cuestionario más utilizado para medir el impacto de la SDE en el estado funcional de pacientes con diferentes trastornos del dormir, el cual se ha validado en distintos países. Por lo tanto, el objetivo de este estudio fue adaptar culturalmente el FOSQ y obtener la confiabilidad, la validez de constructo y los coeficientes de congruencia factorial para la versión FOSQ-México. En una primera fase se tradujo el cuestionario utilizando el procedimiento metodológico estándar. También se hizo la adaptación cultural de los reactivos mediante la técnica de Redes Semánticas Naturales Modificadas en una muestra de 78 participantes. En una segunda fase, el cuestionario adaptado se aplicó a 152 participantes para determinar la discriminación entre reactivos, la consistencia interna, el análisis factorial con rotación ortogonal con un método de componentes principales y comprobar la congruencia factorial. Los resultados indicaron que los 30 reactivos del FOSQ se agruparon en seis factores que explican el 67.2% de la varianza total, con un coeficiente a total de 0.94 y de 0.85 promedio para los factores. Se obtuvieron coeficientes de congruencia factorial de 0.360 a 0.969 entre la versión original y el FOSQ-México. Se demostró que la versión adaptada del FOSQ para habitantes de la Ciudad de México es confiable, válida y equivalente conceptualmente con la versión norteamericana.

Prevalence of signs and symptoms of temporomandibular disorders in children in the state of Puebla, Mexico, evaluated with the research diagnostic criteria for temporomandibular disorders (RDC/TMD)

The aim of this work was to describe the prevalence of signs and symptoms of temporomandibular disorders (TMD) in children of the State of Puebla, Mexico. A descriptive observational study was performed. After calculating sample size, children who met the following selection criteria were included: registered at an official elementary school, either sex, ages between 8 and 12 years, who accept to participate in the study and whose parents have signed the informed consent forms. The Research Diagnostic Criteria for Temporomandibular Disorders were used by calibrated researchers (Kappa.90) under the same conditions. Descriptive statistics were applied by using SPSSv15 software. The study included 235 children, 129 (54.9%) female and 106 (45.1%) male, of average age 9.31+1.2 years. Prevalence of signs and symptoms was 33.2%, and predominately muscular (82%), 48.1% showed signs of muscular pain and 19.1% joint pain. 63.4% showed signs of alteration in the mouth opening pattern, 39.1% presented joint sounds on opening or closing the mouth and 20.4% on mandibular excursions. The high prevalence of signs and symptoms related to temporomandibular disorders, in particular in children with mixed dentition, shows the importance of TMD evaluation during this period, when morphological changes associated to growth and craniofacial development prevail.

El objetivo del presente trabajo fue describir la prevalencia de signos y sintomas de los trastornos temporomandibulares (TTM) en ninos del estado de Puebla, Mexico. Se realizo un estudio observacional descriptivo. Previo calculo de tamano de muestra, se incluyeron ninos que cumplieron con criterios previos de seleccion: inscriptos en escuela primaria oficial, de cualquier sexo, en edades de 8 a 12 anos, que aceptaron participar en el estudio y cuyos padres firmaron el consentimiento informado. Se utilizaron los Criterios de Investigacion Diagnostica para los TTM, aplicados por investigador estandarizado (Kappa .90) bajo las mismas condiciones. Se calculo estadistica descriptiva con el programa SPSS v15. Se incluyeron 235 ninos, 129 (54.9%) mujeres y 106 (45.1%) varones con promedio de edad de 9.31}1.2 anos. La prevalencia de signos y sintomas de TTM fue del 33.2% predominantemente musculares (82%), 48.1% presentaron dolor muscular y 19.1% articular. El 63.4% presento alteraciones en el patron de apertura bucal, 39.1% presento ruidos articulares en apertura o cierre y 20.4% a las excursiones mandibulares. Las altas prevalencias de los signos y sintomas relacionadas con los Trastornos Temporomandibulares, particularmente en ninos con denticion mixta, demuestran la importancia de la evaluacion de los TTM durante este periodo, donde prevalecen los cambios morfologicos asociados al crecimiento y al desarrollo craneofacial.

Trastorno depresivo mayor en México: la relación entre la intensidad de la depresión, los síntomas físicos dolorosos y la calidad de vida

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SUMMARY Background: Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is a disease associated to emotional, vegetative and physical symptoms, including for the latter those pain-related symptoms. MDD has a high prevalence rate with a substantial burden of illness, and it expected that by 2020 it will become the second cause of world disability. The diagnosis of MDD is difficult due to the high prevalence of painful physical symptoms, and also due to the fact these symptoms are more evident that the embedded emotional ones. Over 76% of patients with MDD, report painful physical symptoms observed, like headache, abdominal pain, back pain and unspecific-located pain; observing these symptoms can even predict depression severity. In addition, the likelihood of psychiatric disease increases, importantly, with the number of physical symptoms observed; moreover, the remission of physical symptoms predicts the complete remission in MDD. We present an observational, prospective study to examine the clinical profile of Mexican outpatients suffering MDD and determine the relationship between depression severity, painful physical symptoms in quality of life and depression. Methods: Adult patients with current episodes of MDD, treated with antidepressants were included. MDD was defined according to the criteria of the Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders - 4th Edition (DSM-IV) or in the International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, 10th Revision (ICD-10). Patients should have been free of depression symptoms prior to the current episode for at least 2 months. Duration of current episode should not exceed two years. Treatment-resistant patients and those with other psychiatric diagnosis were excluded. Treatment-resistance was defined as: a) a failure to respond to treatment when two different antidepressants were employed at therapeutic doses for at least four weeks each, b) when the subject was previously treated with IMAO inhibitors, c) when electro-convulsive therapy (ECT) was previously employed. Other exclusion criteria comprise previous or current diagnosis of schizophrenia, schizophreniform or schizoaffective disorder, bipolar disorder, dementia or mental impairment. Patients were selected in 34 centers in Mexico. Patients were classified according to the presence (SFD+) or absence (SFD-) of painful physical symptoms using the Somatic Symptom Inventory (SSI); SFD+ was defined as scores ≥ 2 for the pain-related items in the SSI (items 2, 3, 9, 14, 19, 27 and 28). Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) quantified pain severity (cervical pain, headache, back pain, shoulder pain, interference of pain in daily activities and vigil-time with pain). HAMD17 and CGI-S determined depression severity, while the Quality of Life in Depression Scale (QLDS) quantified subjective well-being. Linear regression models were employed to compare groups for VAS, HAMD17, CGI-S, and QLDS, to fit the confusions or clinical predictors when needed. Proportions between groups were established with Fisher exact test or logistic regression. Significance levels were established at 0.005 due to the observational nature of the study. In the result tables, standard deviation (SD) is reported as a variation around the mean value as Mean ± SD, and 95% confidence intervals are denoted 95% IC. Results: A total of 313 patients were enrolled in the study. All of the enrolled patients were Mexican, almost them were women and had at least a previous MDD episode. Painful physical symptoms were reported by 73.7% of patients, these patients were classified into the SFD+ group. Neither statistical nor clinical significant differences between the SFD+ and SFD- groups were found when analyzing socio-demographic variables (age, gender, ethnical origin) and disease history variables (number of previous episodes of MDD, in the last 24 months, duration of current episode). At baseline, patients had a CGI-S mean score of 4.6 and HAMD17 of 26.3. HAMD17 mean score (27.1) in SFD+ patients was significantly higher (p<0.0001) than the SFD- patients (23.8), but nonsignificant differences between groups were found for the subscales central, Maier & retard. CGI-S scores were similar between SFD+ and SFD-; 4.6 and 4.5 respectively (p>0.05). Prevalent painful physical symptoms were also the most painful, when a five-point scale was employed to measure severity, and comprised muscular pain (84.9%), cervical pain (84.2%) and headache (83.5%). SFD+ patients had higher pain severity in all VAS scales (p<0.0001), with perceived severity scores twice as large when compared to SFDgroup. In particular, the global pain VAS reported average values of 49.0 and 19.7 for the SFD+ and SFD- groups respectively. Patients came to the first psychiatric consultation treated with psychotherapy (27.9%), antidepressants (37.3%), anxiolytics (28.6%) and analgesics (9.7%); more than 50% of all patients were not taking any drugs or receiving psychotherapy for treatment of MDD at baseline. Analgesics were used only by 9.7% of patients for the treatment of painful physical symptoms in their current MDD episode. No significant differences between groups were found when comparing the use of psychotherapy, antidepressants, anxiolytics, antipsychotics, mood stabilizers or analgesics. Quality of life was poor for all patients, but significantly worse in the SFD+ group than in the SFD- group (QLDS scores of 23.2 and 20.0 respectively, p<0.001). Discussion: The diagnosis and symptoms manifestation can be influenced by local socio-cultural factors, in particular cultural differences are associated with the prevalence of painful physical symptoms, but this finding is not consistent. The results of this study can be extrapolated to the MDD Mexican population, as selection criteria comprised only operative diagnosis criteria, and not enrollment into the study took place due to the presence of painful physical symptoms. Patients included into the study presented a moderate to severe disease as measured with the HAMD17 scores. The high prevalence of painful physical symptoms in patients with depression was confirmed in this study; it has been reported the patients report pain-related symptoms as the main (even the only) symptom when consulting general practitioners. Painful physical symptoms in MDD include headache, cervical pain, back pain or neck pain; the presence of painful physical symptoms in depression is associated to higher intakes medication, but in this study more than 50% of subjects were not receiving any treatment, including psychotherapy. The treatment of MDD is by no means optimal, as only 30%- 40% of these patients reach complete remission of symptoms with their first antidepressant. Psychological symptoms respond to antidepressant treatment, but in general, this is not the case for the physical symptoms. The lack of efficacy can be explained as a failure in the treatment of these painful physical symptoms. Resolving these symptoms is even a predictor for the complete remission of MDD; the evidence might suggest that treatment of emotional and physical manifestations of depression could improve successful-treatment rates. Conclusion: As found in other reports, a high prevalence of painful physical symptoms was found in MDD patients. Increase in pain severity is associated with higher HAMD17 scores but not CGI-S scores; this discrepancy in the final rates obtained with both scales suggests that both emotional and physical dimensions of MDD should be considered when the clinical assessment is performed. We concluded that clinical judgment of Mexican psychiatrists differs between their global impression and a semi-structured interview in the same patient and therefore is fundamental that the clinical evaluation consists of both emotional and physical manifestations as important components of MDD.

Psicopatología y uso de tabaco en estudiantes de secundaria

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Abstract: When we talk about drugs, we usually think about illicit substances. However some substances apparently innocuous such as caffeine and other legal ones like tobacco and alcohol, are considered as abuse substances. Nicotine has not been studied as extensively as other drugs. It is known that the pharmacological and behavioural processes that determine the addiction to nicotine are similar to those that determine the addiction to other drugs such as cocaine or heroine. The main adverse effect of nicotine is death. According to the Global Burden of Disease study of the World Health Organization, the World Bank, and Harvard University, in 2020, tobacco will be the first individual cause of death in the world even over AIDS. Nicotine dependence can appear at any age, though it generally begins during adolescence, and it acts on the brain mechanisms of reward, indirectly by endogenous opioid activity and directly by dopaminergic pathways. In the researches on drugs consumption among adolescents conducted in Mexico City during 1989, 1991 and 1993, it was observed that tobacco consumption has increased lightly but systematically, from 4.8% to 4.2%. The percentage of current users (in the last month) is 21.9%. At junior high school level it is 13.7%, and at high school level 34.4%. Attention Déficit Disorder With Hyperactivity (ADDH). Altough the relationship between ADDH and drugs consumption has been recognized none of the studies conducted in our country has included this variable. ADDH is a disorder with a frequency of 1.7% to 18.9%. The difference between the reported percentages is attributed to the fact that definitions and methods used in the studies are not the same. When the disorder is not treated, there is usually a gradual accumulation of adverse processes that increase the risk of pathology. The relationship between ADDH and drug consumption is complex. In a study of adolescents who received treatment for drug abuse, it was observed that 50% of them met the criteria for ADDH. As well, this disorder was a bad prognosis factor, either to the addiction evolution and its treatment. Another complex relationship is the one between ADDH and cigarette smoking. In a study conducted among adult smokers, the subjects with ADDH had an earlier onset of the tobacco addiction, compared to those who did not had ADDH. This finding was confirmed by Milberger, who in a four years follow up study, discovered that ADDH is a significant predictor on the early tobacco consumption. ADDH can be considered as a risk factor in developing other addictions. Although the relationship between ADDH and drug consumption has been studied, the reviewed researches show up some limitations : Only clinical samples have been studied. Most of the follow up studies have included just male individuals with ADDH. In our country the effect of the clinical variables on drugs use have not been studied. In ADDH as well as in drug consumption, it has been observed a remarkable influence of cultural variables, this emphasize the need of evaluating both problems in our country. The following study was conducted under the hypothesis that ADDH and general pathology symptoms are higher among adolescents that have consumed tobacco than those who have not. Material and methods A comparative, cross-sectional survey of adolescent with and without tobacco usage was performed. Fifteen junior high schools in Puebla City were randomly selected. First year junior high school students who agreed to answer the questionnaires were included. The studied variables were: symptoms of ADDH and general psychopathology symptoms. ADDH symptoms were dimensionally evaluated with the Conners-Wells Self Report Scale (long version). General psychopathology was rated with the SCL-90 which evaluates the intensity of symptoms in 9 subscales. Tobacco consumption was determined by the Junior High school Students Questionnaire, developed at the National Institute of Psychiatry, which was used in the Drug, Alcohol and Tobacco consumption surveys in Mexico City. Tobacco consumption was considered positive when the questions about lifetime, and last month consumption were affirmative. From the 15 junior high schools selected, a first year group was chosen at the beginning of the school term. A written authorization from the parents was requested, so the students could answer to the questionnaires. It was inferred that all of them accepted because none of the parents refused explicitely. The questionnaire about drug consumption was applied the first day. Before the application, it was explained to the adolescents, that the information would be confidentially handled; the questionnaire answers would be only known by the researchers and that the information would not be given to their parents or their teachers. The second day of evaluation, the Conners questionnaire was applied. The third day the students answered to the SCL-90. All the questionnaires were applied at the beginning of the daily activities. The 19 psychopathology subscales were compared between male and women and between the students with and without tobacco consumption in the last month and during lifetime. Although the statistical significance was determined with non parametric tests (Wilcoxon test), on the tables, means and standard deviations are shown. The analysis were done with the SAS 6.12. program. The significance level was determined at 0.05. Results From 590 students registered on the selected groups, 544 (92%) were evaluated, the rest of them did not show up during the week in which the evaluations were performed. The mean age was 12 years with a standard deviation of 1, 57.3% (n=295) were males. Twenty children (3.9%) have used tobacco during the last month. On the Conners-Wells Questionnaire, they had higher scores on all ten subscales. These differencies were statistically significant in seven subscales: Familial problems, Conduct problems, Cognitive problems, anger management problems, hyperactivity, Global index, and distractibility DSM IV. General psychopathology symptoms also were higher in those individuals who used tobacco during the last month, compared to those who did not, in seven of the nine subscales the differences were statistically significant. Regarding the experimental usage of tobacco (ever in lifetime), 84 children (15%) answered affirmatively. The scores of these children were higher than the scores of children who denied ever smoked in all subscales of the Conners-Wells Questionnaire. The differences were statistically significant in nine of the ten subscales. In the SCL-90 the scores of the children who have used tobacco during lifetime, were higher in all subscales, except in phobic anxiety. Discussion Our results confirm the proposed hypothesis that the students who consume tobacco present higher levels of psychopathology, compared to those students who have never used this substance. It is necessary to underline the fact that this is the first study in our country that correlates the tobacco consumption with psychopathology symptoms, evaluated in a structured way with valid and reliable instruments.

Violencia autodirigida en la adolescencia: el intento de suicidio / Self-inflicted violence in adolescence: the suicide attempt

Introducción. Objetivo: comparar el grado de depresión con el grado de impulsividad en una muestra clínica de adolescentes con intento de suicidio. Material y métodos. Se estudió a un grupo de adolescentes de 12 a 17 años de edad, hombres y mujeres, llevados en forma consecutiva durante un semestre al Hospital Psiquiátrico Infantil Juan N. Navarro de la Secretaría de Salud por haber realizado un intento de suicidio. Sus diagnósticos clínicos fueron catalogados en 3 grupos: grupo I (conductual), grupo II (afectivo) y grupo III (mixto). Los pacientes también respondieron a escalas que miden depresión y otros tipos de problemas psicológicos. Resultados. De 65 adolescentes (56 mujeres y 9 hombres), con intentos suicidas de primera vez o repetidos, 75% tenían diagnósticos con depresión y 42% tenían diagnósticos con impulsividad. La impulsividad se encontró significativamente más elevada en hombres que en mujeres. En éstas, el medio más empleado fue la sobredosis de medicamentos. Todos los tipos de problemas psicológicos fueron más graves entre los adolescentes que estaban deprimidos. Conclusiones. Hubo mayor frecuencia de depresión que de impulsividad en adolescentes que intentaron el suicidio. Los pacientes deprimidos mostraron más psicopatología de otro tipo que los no deprimidos, y más problemas familiares. Hasta hoy éste es el estudio con más pacientes en población clínica de adolescentes con intento suicida realizado en México.

Introduction. Objective: our aim was to compare degrees of depression and impulsivity in a clinical sample of adolescents with suicide attempts. Material and methods. We studied adolescents of both sexes who attempted suicide and were brought to a psychiatric hospital in Mexico City in a semester. Clinical diagnosis was included in 3 possible groups: group I (behavioral disorders), group II (affective disorders) and group III (mixed disorders). Patients also responded scales in order to measure depression and other types of psychological problems. Results. A total of 65 patients (56 girls and 9 boys), with first or repeated suicide attempts, were evaluated. Depressive type diagnosis was present in 75% and impulsiveness in 42%. Impulsivity was significantly higher in boys than in girls. Overdosing was the most employed method in the suicide attempts of female patients. Psychopathology was more severe among depressed adolescents. Conclusions. There is more depression than impulsivity among adolescents who attempt suicide. Depressed adolescents show more psychopathology and family problems than non-depressed adolescents, with statistical significance. So far, this is the largest study in a clinical sample of Mexican adolescents who attempted suicide.